Date

4-29-2026

Department

School of Behavioral Sciences

Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology (PhD)

Chair

Angela Rathkamp

Keywords

smartphones, social media, ACE, mental health, smartphone ownership, mental health outcomes, self-esteem, depression, problematic social media use

Disciplines

Psychology

Abstract

The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the relationship between the age of smartphone ownership with social media access (ASO) and self-esteem and depression symptoms, as well as to determine if the results could be moderated by adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) as an individual transitions from adolescence to adulthood. The study was conducted with n=54 (72% female), of whom 83% first owned a smartphone with social media access ≥ 12 years-of-age. This study was unable to obtain the minimum sample size for a statistically significant study and is considered underpowered due to needing a minimum sample size of 104 (52 per group). As a result, the study analyzed a sample size of n= 54, which was divided into 2 groups (ASO ≤11 and ASO ≥12). Each of the participants completed a brief survey that captured the ASO, gender, as well as their self-esteem score, depressive symptoms, and ACE score. The study then analyzed the results via SPSS by conducting MANOVA and correlational tests to test the hypothesis. The descriptive results indicated that adults in the ASO ≤11 age group had lower selfesteem and higher depressive scores when compared to adults in the ASO ≥12 group. However, due to being underpowered, the study failed to confirm statistical significance. ACEs were not found to be a moderator of the effect. Although this study suggests ownership before the age of 12 could have negative consequences, future studies need to be conducted to define a true objective age.

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