Date

8-6-2025

Department

Helms School of Government

Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in Public Policy (PhD)

Chair

Edwin Christmann

Keywords

virtual schools, charter schools, school quality, per-pupil spending, educational equity, education policy, accountability, online learning, Michigan schools

Disciplines

Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research | Online and Distance Education

Abstract

This quantitative study examined the relationship between school environment and both school index scores and per-pupil spending across four distinct public school types in Michigan: in-person district schools, in-person charter schools, virtual district schools, and virtual charter schools. The primary purpose was to explore whether significant differences exist in the school index scores and per-pupil expenditures among these school environments, with particular attention to virtual schools, which remain underrepresented within educational policy research. Initial analysis using MANOVA was supplemented with non-parametric testing due to violations of normality assumptions. Findings indicate significant differences in both spending and school index scores across school types when comparing in-person district, in-person charter, and virtual schools. However, when comparing virtual district and virtual charter schools, findings were non-significant. These results suggest that school governance structure (charter versus district) may have less influence on outcomes in virtual environments than previously assumed. The study proposes a policy to define quality online learning and operationalize a measurement tool to evaluate virtual schools based on the metrics of quality online programs as defined by the National Standards for Quality Online Learning. The findings inform educational policy debates concerning funding equity, accountability, and the need for contextually appropriate evaluation systems for online learning environments.

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